The Science

A Brief History of Brainwave Entrainment

Brainwave entrainment was first identified in 1934, although its effects had been noted as early as Ptolemy.

Not long after the discovery of the Alpha brainwave by Hans Berger in 1929, researchers found that the strength of the wave could be "driven" beyond its natural frequency using flickering lights. This is called "Photic Driving", which is another word for brainwave entrainment using photic (light) stimulation. In 1942 Dempsey and Morison discovered that repetitive tactile stimulation could also produce entrainment and in 1959, Dr. Chatrian observed auditory entrainment in response to clicks at a frequency of 15 per second.

By the 1960s entrainment started to become a tool rather than a phenomenon of the brain. Anesthesiologist M.S. Sadove, MD, used photic stimulation to reduce the amount of anesthesia needed for surgery. Bernard Margolis published an article on brainwave entrainment used during dental procedures, noting less anesthesia required, less gagging, less bleeding and a general reduction in anxiety.

In a 1973 issue of Scientific American, Dr. Gerald Oster examined how combining 2 pure tones resulted in a rhythmic beat which he called Binaural and Monaural Beats. In comparing Binaural beats against Monaural beats, Oster noted that Monaural beats were shown to elicit extremely strong cortical responses, which is the electrical activity responsible for entrainment. Oster concluded that while Binaural Beats produced very little neural response (because the depth of a Binaural Beat is only 3db or 1/10 the volume of a whisper), they could be useful in diagnosing certain neurological disorders.

In the 1980's studies continued with Dr. Norman Shealy, Dr. Glen Solomon and others researching entrainment for headache relief, Serotonin and HGH release, as well as general relaxation. Michael Hutchison wrote his landmark book MegaBrain in 1981, outlining the many possible uses of entrainment from meditation to super-learning. In 1980, Tsuyoshi Inouye and associates at the Department of Neuropsychiatry at Osaka University Medical School in Japan found that photic stimulation produced "cerebral synchronization". Dr. Norman Shealy later confirmed the effect, finding that photic stimulation produced synchronization in more than 5,000 patients. In 1984, Dr. Brockopp analyzed audio-visual brain stimulation and in particular hemispheric synchronization during EEG monitoring. He said "By inducing hemispheric coherence the machine can contribute to improved intellectual functioning of the brain."

In 1981, Arturo Manns published a study showing the effectiveness of Isochronic Tones. This was later confirmed by others such as David Siever.

Studies continued into the 90's with researchers such as Dr. Russell, Dr. Carter and others who explored the vast potential of using entrainment with ADD and learning disorders. Research has also been conducted into PMS, Chronic Fatigue, Chronic Pain, Depression, Hypertension and a number of other disorders. Steady research continues today with the work of Dr. Thomas Budzynski, David Siever, psychologist Michael Joyce and many others. The results of entrainment have been so promising that many modern clinical EEG units come with entrainment devices.

There is over 70 years of solid research behind brainwave entrainment . So why hasn't it become more well known? Mainly because our culture is very much dependent on drugs, and, in comparison to the pharmaceutical giants, there is not a lot of money to be made in entrainment: it is inexpensive, easy to use at home and can be a viable solution to a huge variety of problems. Also, the idea that software or an inexpensive piece of hardware is able to directly affect the brain sounds preposterous at first, until you read the research and discover the science behind it. We have found that most people are skeptical until the day they actually use the software. Despite the combination of solid scientific, empirical and a huge amount of anecdotal evidence, the world is still very skeptical of entrainment and brain training. But the word is spreading. Every day more psychologists, mental health clinics, coaches, teachers and professionals are discovering entrainment, and finding it remarkably useful.

Further Reading

Responses to Clicks from the Human Brain: Some Depth Electrographic Observations, Gian Emilio Chatrian, M.D., Magnus C. Petersen, M.D., and Jorge A. Lazarte, M.D. - Rochester State Hospital (1959).

Academic Performance Enhancement with Photic Stimulation and EDR Feedback, Thomas Budzynski, Ph.D., John Jordy, M.Ed., Helen Kogan Budzynski, Ph.D., Hsin-Yi Tang, M.S., and Keith Claypoole, Ph.D., Journal of Neurotherapy

Repeated stimulation induced neuronal activation (SINA), with cognitive and behavioral functioning changes in ADHD children., Harold Russell, Ph.D., Journal of Neurotherapy

A Comparison of Depths of Relaxation Produced by Various Techniques and Neurotransmitters by Brainwave Entrainment, Shealy, N., Cady, R., Cox, R., Liss, S., Clossen, W., Veehoff, D., Shealy and Forest Institute of Professional Psychology A study done for Comprehensive Health Care.

Auditory beats in the brain., Oster, G., Scientific American, 229, 94-102.

Isochronic Tones and Brainwave Entrainment, David Siever, C.E.T.

The central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation., Walter, V. J. & Walter, W. G., Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 57-86

Visual Evoked Responses Elicited by Rapid Stimulation, Kinney, J.A., McKay, C., Mensch, Lurisa, Encephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Vol 34: 7-13

The Interaction of Certain Spontaneous and Induced Cortical Potentials, Dempsey, E., Morison, R., American Journal of Physiology, 135, 310-307

Neurochemical Responses to Cranial Electrical Stimulation and Photo-Stimulation via Brain Wave Synchronization., Dr. Roger K. Cady, Dr. Norman Shealy, Study performed by the Shealy Institute of Comprehensive Health Care, Springfield, Missouri, 1990

The Application of Audiostimulation and Electromyographic Biofeedback to Bruxism and Myofascial Pain-Dysfunction Syndrome, Dr. Arturo Manns, Miralles, R., Adrian, H., Oral Surgery, 1981, Vol. 52

Further Reading

Academic Performance Enhancement with Photic Stimulation and EDR Feedback. Thomas Budzynski, Ph.D., John Jordy, M.Ed., Helen Kogan Budzynski, Ph.D., Hsin-Yi Tang, M.S., and Keith Claypoole, Ph.D., Journal of Neurotherapy, 3(3), 11-21.

Audio-Visual Entrainment (AVE) Program as a Treatment for Behavior Disorders in a School Setting, Michael Joyce & Dave Siever, 1997, Journal of Neurotherapy, vol 4 (2), 9-32.

Differences in EEG Alpha Activity Related to Giftedness. Jausovec, N. (1996)., Intelligence, 23, 159-173.

Resting EEG theta activity predicts cognitive performance in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Hermens DF, Soei EX, Clarke SD, Kohn MR, Gordon E, Williams LM., 2005

EEG Average Frequency and Intelligence. Giannitrapani, D. (1969)., Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 27, 480-486.

A pilot investigation of auditory and visual entrainment of brain wave activity in learning disabled boys. Carter, J. L., & Russell, H. L. (1993). Texas Researcher, Journal of the Texas Center for Educational Research, 4, 65-73. Neurophysiology. 4, 289-296.

EEG Alpha Rhythm Frequency and Intelligence in Normal Individuals. Anoukhin, A., Intelligence, 23: 1-14

EEG differences in ADHD-combined type during baseline and cognitive tasks., Swartwood JN, Swartwood MO, Lubar JF, Timmermann DL.

Intelligence, Academic Achievement, and EEG Abnormalities in Hyperactive Children, Am J Psychiatry 131:4, April 1974, James H. Satterfield, M.D., Dennis P. Cantwell, M.D., Ronald E. Saul, M.D., Alvin Yusin, M.D.

Exceptional Results with 'Exceptional Children', Lynda Thompson, Ph.D. and Michael Thompson, M.D., 1995 International Society for Neuronal Regulation
Conference

New Visions School NeuroTechnology Replication Project 2000 - 2001, Michael Joyce

Electroencephalographic Biofeedback of SMR and Beta for Treatment of Attention Deficit Disorders in a Clinical Setting, Lubar, J. O., and J.F. Lubar. Biofeedback and Self Regulation 9, no. 1 (1984) 1-23

Righting the Rhythms of Reason: EEG Biofeedback Training as a Therapeutic Modality in a Clinical Office Setting. Tansey, M.A., Medical Psychotherapy 3 (1990): 57-68

EEG Training for ADHD and Learning Disorders, Othmer, S & Othmer, S.F., March, 1989

Attention deficit disorder. Othmer, S. (1998). EEG Spectrum Training Syllabus. Volume 3. Encino, CA: EEC Spectrum.

EEG and behavioral changes in a hyperactive child concurrent training of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). A preliminary report. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1, 293-306. Lubar, J.F., Shabsin, H.S., Natelson, S.E., Holder, G.S., Whitsett, S.F., Pamplin, W.E., and Krulikowski, D.I. (1981).

The Physiological Response to "Beta Sweep" Entrainment, Gontgovsky, S., Montgomery, D., Proceedings AAPB Thirteenth Anniversary Annual Meeting (1999)

Discourse on the development of EEG diagnostics and biofeedback for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Lubar, J. F. (1991)., Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 16, 201-225.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of EEG neurofeedback training for ADHD in a clinical setting as measured by changes in T.0.V.A. scores, behavioral ratings, and WISC-R performance. Lubar, J. F., Swartwood, M. 0., Swartwood, J. N., & O'Donnell, P. FL (1995). Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 20, 83-99.

Quantitative analysis of EEG in boys with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: Controlled study with clinical implications. Mann, C. A., Lubar, J. E, Zimmerman, A. W., Miller, C. A., & Muenchen, R. A. (1992). Pediatric Neurology, 8,30-36.

Intellectual, auditory and photic stimulation and changes in functioning in children and adults. Russell, H. L. (1997). Biofeedback, 25(1), 16-17, 23, 24.

A pilot study of the effect of 18 Hz audio visual stimulation (AVS) on attention and concentration symptoms and on quantitative EEG (QEEG) in long-term chronic fatigue (CFS).Trudeau, D. L., Moore, J., Stockley, H., & Rubin, Y. (1999). Journal of Neurotherapy 3~4), 76

A controlled study of the effects of neurofeedback training on IQ and EEG patterns for ADD subjects. Utter, C. P. (1996). Unpublished manuscript. College of Wooster.

Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Zametkin, A. I, Liebenauer, L. L., King, A. C., Minunkas, D. V., Herscovitch, P., Yamada, E. M., & Cohen, R. M. (1993). Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 333-340.

Bermer, F. "Cerebral and cerebellar potentials." Physiological Review, 38, 357-388.

Chatrian, G., Petersen, M., Lazarte, J. "Responses to Clicks from the Human Brain: Some Depth Electrographic Observation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 12: 479-487

Gontgovsky, S., Montgomery, D. "The Physiological Response to "Beta Sweep" Entrainment." Proceedings AAPB Thirteenth Anniversary Annual Meeting, 62-65.

Oster, G. "Auditory beats in the brain." Scientific American, 229, 94-102.

Shealy, N., Cady, R., Cox, R., Liss, S., Clossen, W., Veehoff, D. "A Comparison of Depths of Relaxation Produced by Various Techniques and Neurotransmitters by Brainwave Entrainment" - Shealy and Forest Institute of Professional Psychology A study done for Comprehensive Health Care, Unpublished.

Siever, D. "Isochronic Tones and Brainwave Entrainment." Unpublished, but available through his book the Rediscovery of Audio-Visual Entrainment.

Walter, V. J. & Walter, W. G. "The central effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 57-86.